THE DAEHAN EMPIRE 대한제국 (1897-1910)
DAEHAN: THE SECOND MYEONG EMPIRE
The Myeong Empire (대명국) (1368-1662), literally the 'Empire of Great Brightness,' was the last historic Confucian commonwealth to exist on continental East Asia.
It was, not as detractors misrepresent, any age of missed opportunities run by a succession of brutal emperors, sndwiched between two periods of foreign imperialism.
Under the Myeong, agricultural reforms led to increased food production and population growth, and trade and commerce thrived with the establishment of maritime expeditions and the reopening of the Silk Road. The Myeong Empire saw a flourishing of arts, literature, and philosophy. Prominent Myeong scholars and philosophers, such as Sage Wang Yangmyeong (대명국) (1368-1662), revitalised Confucianism. Literature and poetry flourished, with notable works like Journey to the West (서유기) and Romance of the Three Kingdoms (삼국지연의) being authored. Myeong porcelain, known for its exquisite craftsmanship, became highly sought after.
The construction of the Forbidden City in Peking, a vast imperial palace complex, stands as a remarkable example of Myeong architecture. The Great Wall was extensively renovated and expanded during this period to fortify the northern borders. Myeong authorities undertook ambitious maritime expeditions which expanded the Empire of Great Brightness's influence and established diplomatic ties with neighboring countries. Myeong witnessed advancements in various scientific fields. Prominent scholars like Sage Paul Hsu (서광계) (1562-1633) contributed to the development of agricultural, astronomical, and technological knowledge. Innovations like improved irrigation techniques, accurate calendars, and the publishing of encyclopedic works made significant contributions to Eastern science.
In the seventeenth century, the Manchus (만주), formerly known as the Jurchens (여진), a foreign Tungusic people native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia and the Russian Far East, embarked on a bold conquest of the once-mighty Myeong Empire.
Regional power balance shifted and the Manchu Daecheongguk (대청국) (1636-1912) emerged triumphant as an usurper who cowardly executed the last, weaponless, Yeonglyeok Emperor (영력제) (r. 1646-1662), in order to seize the Myeong throne.
The former territories of the Myeong Empire that had been conquered by the Manchu merely became parts of the Daecheongguk's new colonial empire, which coerced men to shave bald their heads and hang lengthy pigtails behind their heads, in addition to wearing nomadic clothing, on the pain of capital punishment.
This should not surprise anyone, for the Manchu Daecheongguk fundamentally saw itself as a universal empire dominant over the entire known world, rather than another ordinary dynastic successor to the Myeong Empire.
Joseon maintained a steadfast reverence for the collapsed Myeong Empire, and clung to their admiration for Ming heritage. Through subtle acts, like using the Myeong calendar, this cultural affinity endured. Joseon saw itself as the sole torchbearer of Myeong culture in Asia, as the central plains came under the rule of the barbaric Manchus.
In the post-Myeong era, Joseon believed that it had a duty to protect the Sojunghwa (소중화) culture, a miniature of the Myeong culture. Despite no territorial overlap, the Joseons saw themselves as the rightful successors to the former Myeong. Joseon isolated foreigners and restricted arrivals from the Manchu Daecheongguk, demonstrating their commitment to preserving Myeong culture at all costs.
Despite being a de jure vassal kingdom to the Manchu Daecheongguk, Joseon strongly resented towards the Manchus and saw themselves as the last bastion of Sojunghwa, the rightful successors to the Myeong Empire.
Throughout history, it was not uncommon for rulers to claim the legacy of previous civilisations. The Holy Roman Empire had asserted itself to be the restoration of the Western Roman Empire under the legal doctrine of translatio imperii. Tsarist Russia had claimed Moscow to be the 'Third Rome' after the collapse of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 under the Ottomans. In a similar vein, Joseon and its successor, the Daehan Empire, saw themselves as the continuity of the Myeong Empire. Today, following the Japanese colonisation period and the end of the Second World War, the governments of North and South Korea no longer claim succession to the Myeong Empire.
The Daehan Empire (1897-1910), the last Confucian macronation to be established, was a significant period marked by various political, social, and cultural changes.
It emerged as a response to growing external pressures and internal transformations on the Korean peninsula. In the late 19th century, the Imperial Myeong Kingdom of Joseon (황명조선국) (1392-1897), faced increasing interference from imperial powers, particularly the Manchu Daecheongguk (대청국), the Japanese Empire, and the Russian Empire. Amid these influences, King Gojong (고종) of Joseon sought to modernise the realm and strengthen its sovereignty. In 1897, he proclaimed the Daehan Empire as the Gwangmu Emperor (광무제) (1897-1907) (pictured), under which modernisation efforts were initiated to strengthen infrastructure, economy, and military. Reforms were introduced in areas such as education, law, and agriculture. However, the Empire faced significant challenges from both external and internal sources.
The Japanese Empire, in particular, exerted increasing control over the Daehan Empire, manipulating its politics and economy to further its imperial ambitions. In 1905, Japan forced Daehan to sign the Eulsa Treaty, effectively making the latter a protectorate of the former. Internal divisions also plagued the Daehan Empire. In 1910, Japan formally annexed the Korean Peninsula, bringing an end to the Daehan Empire. This marked the beginning of brutal Japanese colonial rule that lasted until the end of World War II in 1945. Despite its relatively short existence, the Daehan Empire played a crucial role in shaping the two Koreas. It laid the foundation for subsequent movements and developments that would eventually lead to its own restoration, in micronational form, as the Myeonghan Realm.
The Daehan Empire did not directly succeed the Myeong Empire (1368-1662), but there are countless historical connections and influences between the two. During the preceding Imperial Myeong Kingdom of Joseon, Hansung recognised the Myeong Emperor as Cheonja ('Son of Heaven') and Joseon as his vassal state. Confucianism, which was the official state ideology of both the Myeong and Joseon Dynasties, shaped the social structure, governance, and moral values of Joseon society. Joseon adopted the civil service examination system from Imperial Myeong, emphasising Confucian learning and scholarship as the basis for selecting government officials.
Despite the hegemony of the Manchu Empire that conquered the Myeong Empire, the Daehan Empire still maintained Confucian ideals, practices, etiquette, and culture inherited from the Myeong Empire, such as filial piety and the importance of moral cultivation, and thereore proved itsel to be a worthy successor to the Imperial Myeong.
Confucianism had a significant impact on the Daehan Empire (1897-1910), shaping its social structure, governance, education, and cultural practices.
Confucian ideals and principles played a crucial role in the Empire's policies and institutions. Confucian principles guided the behaviour of the emperor, the last of whom was the Yunghui Emperor (융희제) (1907-1910) (pictured) officials, and scholars, promoting a sense of duty, respect, and harmony within the ruling elite. The Daehan Empire's education system was heavily influenced by Confucianism. Confucianism also shaped social relationships and gender roles during the Daehan Empire. The concept of filial piety, which stressed respect for senior, parents, and ancestors, influenced family dynamics and societal expectations.
What is more, Confucianism's influence extended to cultural practices, arts, and literature. Traditional rituals, such as ancestral veneration and memorial ceremonies, were deeply rooted in Confucian beliefs. Confucian ethics also influenced literature, as writers often portrayed moral lessons and emphasized virtuous behaviour.
However, it is important to note that Confucianism's impact during this period was not without challenges. The Daehan Empire experienced growing pressures from Western ideas and influences, which often clashed with Confucian traditions. This led to debates regarding the compatibility of Confucianism with modernisation efforts and the adoption of European and American practices, which have all been resolved by the Constitution of the Myeonghan Realm.
